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2015 Reprint of 1960 Edition. Full facsimile of the original edition. Not reproduced with Optical Recognition Software. The "Novum Organum", full original title "Novum Organum Scientiarum" or 'new instrument of science', is a Bacon's landmark work scientific method. First published in 1620, the title is a reference to Aristotle's work "Organon," which was his treatise on logic and syllogism. Bacon outlines a new system of logic he believes to be superior to the old ways of syllogism. This is now known as the Baconian method.For Bacon, finding the essence of a thing was a simple process of reduction, and the use of inductive reasoning. In finding the cause of a 'phenomenal nature' such as heat, one must list all of the situations where heat is found. Then another list should be drawn up, listing situations that are similar to those of the first list except for the lack of heat. A third table lists situations where heat can vary. The 'form nature', or cause, of heat must be that which is common to all instances in the first table, is lacking from all instances of the second table and varies by degree in instances of the third table. Bacon's work was instrumental in the historical development of the scientific method. Includes Bacon's Essay on "Great Instauration," and "Preparative Toward a Material and Experimental History."
- Sales Rank: #14551964 in Books
- Published on: 2000-05
- Binding: Library Binding
From the Publisher
Library of Liberal Arts title.
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5 of 6 people found the following review helpful.
The Historical Source on the Modern "Scientific Method"
By Scholastic Reader
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a Christian lawyer who made his mark on history by writing the "Great Instauration" which included "the New Organon". He was at the forefront at the time of the Scientific Revolution.
"The New Organon" (1620) and the rest of the "Great Instauration" was to be one of his last contributions and it was to be one of his greatest critiques of knowledge at the time aside from his other works such as "The Advancement on Learning" and others found in Francis Bacon: The Major Works (Oxford World's Classics). The knowledge that he was critiquing was the knowledge of nature, aka "Natural Philosophy". "Natural Philosophy" was the common term for what we call "Science" today up to the 19th and part of the 20th century and the word "Science" comes from the Latin word "scientia" which literally means "knowledge".
"The New Organon" is the work on the modern "Scientific Method" and its variants. Its major contribution to science was inductive reasoning, which resonates through science today. After the publication, knowledge of nature was to be formally derived from experiences of the senses via systematic experiments, and systematic elimination of alternative explanations. Francis Bacon mainly pushed for a more systematic and focused way of generating and securing knowledge - including knowledge from nature. According to Francis Bacon, studying nature and natural phenomenon also was a way fulfilling God's purpose in man and nature - to discover and increase in knowledge, or as he called it, "The Divine Providence". See The Religious Foundations of Francis Bacon's Thought (ERIC VOEGELIN INST SERIES) for more on his inspiration for his writings.
However, this does not mean that natural philosophers before Francis Bacon were doing their science without inductive reasoning. Robert Grosseteste (1175-1253) and numerous other medieval players in the 1200s had already formed the a scientific method and a framework centuries before (see Robert Grosseteste and Origins of Experimental Science, 1100-1700). Roger Bacon (1214-1292) wrote Opus Majus of Roger Bacon, Part 1 and Part 2 which had experimental methodology. Well before this we have a few glimpses through the works of Isidore of Seville and Galen and also the original 'organon' of Aristotle.
Of course, it was Willam Whewell in the 19th century who helped developed today's concept of science, coined the term "scientist" in 1834, and pushed for Baconian induction at the center of science in his famous work The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 1 of 2 (Classic Reprint) and Vol. 2 (1840).
Francis Bacon's "New Organon" was to replace Aristotle's 'organon', which was made up of a few of his works in Logic, especially Aristotle's "scientific method" in his work called "Posterior Analytics". There are many similarities between both Organons. One highlight of Francis Bacon's book is that it focused heavily on emphasizing the use of science to benefit humanity - power. For further research on excellent scientific advancements through time from Ancient to Medieval times please read some primary documents found here: A Sourcebook in Medieval Science (Source Books in the History of the Sciences) and The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook and Greek Science of the Hellenistic Era: A Sourcebook.
The book includes his vision for the structure of the "Great Instauration", "the New Organon", "Description of a Natural and Experimental History" and "Catalogue of Particular Histories by Title". The eloquent 1863 translation brings out Bacon's original voice with the power and the fury of the philosophers and the Christian rationalists.
The New Organon is divided into two books. Here is a summary of what you will find in Bacon's work on the "Scientific Method' and its variants:
Book 1 (Basically, Critiques of Knowledge):
Critiques of letting pure reason be the guide to acquiring knowledge of nature and redirecting to letting nature be the guide to interpreting nature; consider more than just anticipations in nature; the 4 Idols of understanding that give men false understanding, error, speculation: Idols of the Tribe, Cave, Marketplace, and Theatre (XXXIX-LXII); critique of Aristotle's manipulation of nature to suit his philosophy and lack of experimentation; full blown critiques of problems in the 3 classes of Rational Schools of Philosophy: Sophistry [dependence on wit] , Empirical [big claims, little evidence, dogmas], Superstitious [mixing weird theology and philosophy] (LXII-LXV); making a science of the Book of Genesis [in context of his time, Bacon saw this as useless because there was no way to verify the origins of the universe or archaeology to validate stories in Genesis] (LXV); seeing God's creation of light in Genesis as a lens on how to enlighten and buffer the sciences via conducting 2 types of experimentation : Experimentation of Light and Fruit (LXX); things that distracted men from focusing on natural philosophy; benefits of discovery; bad memories of few tensions between natural philosophy and religion, and Bacon's defense of compatibility between natural philosophy and religion (LXXIX); science being hindered the greatest by men thinking things impossible [plea for optimism in science for sake of discovery using Columbus as an example] (XCII); applying mathematics to nature; increasing natural knowledge fulfills Biblical prophecy from the Book of Daniel [Divine Providence] (XCIII); building axioms upon axioms as way of increasing knowledge of nature; examples of benefits of discovery in terms of technology for humanity (CX); applying the Scientific Method on politics, ethics, memory, etc. (CXXVII); comparative analysis; emphasis on history to further knowledge of nature and more.
Book 2 (Basically, Controlled experiments and examples of applications of his methods of induction in analysis of information):
Types of systematic inquiry for interpretation of nature; investigating the nature of a spirit (VII); 2 kinds of axioms: Metaphysical and Physical (IX); experiments from axioms and axioms from experience; comparative tables of instances with similar, dissimilar, and missing natures; short procedures to try on these natures and things with similar and dissimilar natures to compare quality of substances; 27 Prerogative Instances that aid in interpreting nature carefully and correctly [divided into 2 parts: Operational aspects of science and Informational aspects of science]; with examples and wanderings of inquiry from Bacon on the nature of magnets, light, liquids, heat, and so on.
Overall, this is truly one of the greatest accomplishments in the realm of inquiries of nature. Modern scientists and engineers can learn a lot from this work in terms of how to be humble and reasonable via experiments which are, in turn, based on experience via the senses and in the case of history, on the testimony of historians and people form the past. Bacon's optimism for the future of studies in nature (science) are a major highlight of the book for he was very prudent and had a futuristic vision of discovery. Bacon's naturalism, like most scientists in his time and even today, is not a metaphysical naturalism, but is instead a physical naturalism where his belief in God, the Bible, and nature are not in conflict, but are instead complementary. He desires for naturalists to be cautionary when interpreting both the Book of Nature and the Book of God. Science is more than just direct physical evidence, in fact science is a metaphysical enterprise - knowledge and certainty. Science includes indirect evidence, methods, explanations, speculations, reasoning, interpretation, curiosity, inference, etc. But, ultimately, searching for consistency of ideas in hopes of reflecting nature's tendencies as best as possible is the main goal in science. It is an attempt to simulate reality from using our minds and gathering information from nature just as we do when we smell organic compounds such as food or when we look at effects of heat on a candle.
For further reading on the nature of science and the methods please read: Scientific Method in Practice, The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation (2nd edition), "The Structure of Scientific Theories".
I find it interesting that Francis Bacon wrote in some other works:
"Thirdly, in physics likewise I maintain this - that a little natural philosophy and the first entrance into it inclines men's opinions to Atheism; but on the other hand much natural philosophy and a deeper progress into it brings men's minds about again to religion. So that Atheism appears to be convicted on all sides of folly and ignorance: and it is truly the saying of fools, that there is no God."
In his his time, natural philosophy = science. This was probably one of his reasons for promoting science to the masses - to broaden views. Since he was in the forefront of the scientific revolution, it is interesting to note that in the New Organon, he saw Printing, Gunpowder and the Compass as the inventions that would lead to unstoppable and rapid change in the world - including what we call the Scientific Revolution:
"Again, it is well to observe the force and virtue and consequences of discoveries, and these are to be seen nowhere more conspicuously than in those three which were unknown to the ancients, and of which the origin, though recent, is obscure and inglorious; namely, printing, gunpowder, and the magnet. For these three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, insomuch that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries.
Further, it will not be amiss to distinguish the three kinds and, as it were, grades of ambition in mankind. The first is of those who desire to extend their own power in their native country, a vulgar and degenerate kind. The second is of those who labor to extend the power and dominion of their country among men. This certainly has more dignity, though not less covetousness. But if a man endeavor to establish and extend the power and dominion of the human race itself over the universe, his ambition (if ambition it can be called) is without doubt both a more wholesome and a more noble thing than the other two. Now the empire of man over things depends wholly on the arts and sciences. For we cannot command nature except by obeying her.
Again, if men have thought so much of some one particular discovery as to regard him as more than man who has been able by some benefit to make the whole human race his debtor, how much higher a thing to discover that by means of which all things else shall be discovered with ease! And yet (to speak the whole truth), as the uses of light are infinite in enabling us to walk, to ply our arts, to read, to recognize one another -- and nevertheless the very beholding of the light is itself a more excellent and a fairer thing than all the uses of it -- so assuredly the very contemplation of things as they are, without superstition or imposture, error or confusion, is in itself more worthy than all the fruit of inventions.
Lastly, if the debasement of arts and sciences to purposes of wickedness, luxury, and the like, be made a ground of objection, let no one be moved thereby. For the same may be said of all earthly goods: of wit, courage, strength, beauty, wealth, light itself, and the rest. Only let the human race recover that right over nature which belongs to it by divine bequest, and let power be given it; the exercise thereof will be governed by sound reason and true religion." (Book 1, CXXIX)
5 of 5 people found the following review helpful.
The keystone that all critically thinking empiricist must possess!!!
By dirtymc
Francis Bacon's "The New Organon" is one of those books that entirely too few people sit down and read. That is a shame becuase if the lessons that he wrote down in this book were to be followed there would be considerably less strife when it comes to figuring out what's science and what is pseudoscience. I cannot state this enough it is a must read for anyone looking to review information on today's most pressing medical/science debates.
1 of 1 people found the following review helpful.
A PROPOSAL TO REPLACE CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL DEDUCTIVE SYLLOGISTIC LOGIC WITH "INDUCTION THROUGHOUT"
By Steven H Propp
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, essayist, and author. He also wrote Essays: Or Councils, Civil and Moral.
"Organon" was the name given by Aristotle's followers to his works on logic. By proposing a "New" Organon, Bacon was suggesting a new method for finding out truth, that was completely different from the classical Greek and Medieval Christian deductive models. Bacon asserts, "Aristotle... corrupted natural philosophy by his logic: fashioning the world out of categories,; assigning to the human soul... a genus from words of the second intention; doing the business of density and rarity... by the frigid distinction of act and power; asserting the single bodies have each a single and proper motion, and that if they participate in any other, then this results from an external cause; and imposing countless other arbitrary restrictions on the nature of things; being always more solicitous to provide an answer to the question and affirm something positive in words, than about the inner truth of things..." (LXIII, pg. 60)
He states in The Great Instauration [i.e., restoration], "I therefore reject the syllogism, and that not only as regards principles... but also as regards middle propositions... therefore, I leave to the syllogism and these famous and boasted modes of demonstration their jurisdiction over popular arts and such as are matter of opinion... yet in dealing with the nature of things I will use induction throughout, and that in the minor propositions as well as the major. For I consider induction to be that form of demonstration which upholds the sense, and closes with nature, and comes to the very brink of operation, if it does not actually deal with it." (Pg. 19-20)
He wrote in the Preface to the New Organon, "Now my method, though hard to practice, is easy to explain; and it is this. I propose to establish progressive stages of certainty. The evidence of the sense, helped and guarded by a certain process of correction, I retain. But the mental operation which follows the act of sense I for the most part reject; and instead of it I open and lay out a new a certain path for the mind to proceed in, starting directly from the simple sensuous perception... the entire work of the understanding [should] be commenced afresh, and the mind itself be from the very outset not left to take its own course, but guided at every step; and the business be done as if by machinery." (Pg. 33-34)
He asserts, "The syllogism consists of propositions, propositions consist of words, words are symbols of notions. Therefore if the notions themselves ... are confused and overhastily abstracted from the facts, there can be no firmness in the superstructure. Our only hope therefore lies in a true induction." (XIV, pg. 41) He continued, "There are and can be only two ways of searching into and discovering truth. The one flies from the senses and particulars to the most general axioms, and from these principles... proceeds to judgment and to the discovery of middle axioms. And this way is now in fashion. The other derives axioms from the senses and particulars, rising by a gradual and unbroken ascent, so that it arrives at the most general axioms last of all. This is the true way, as yet untried." (XIX, pg. 43) He suggests, "The understanding must not therefore be supplied with wings, but rather hung with weights, to keep it from leaping and flying. Now this has never yet been done; when it is done, we may entertain better hopes of the sciences." (CIV, pg. 98) He states, "For new discoveries must be sought from the light of nature, not fetched back out of the darkness of antiquity." (CXXII, pg. 112)
In his "Aphorisms On the Composition of the Primary History," he observes, "Natural history, which in its subject... is threefold, is in its use twofold. For it is used either for the sake of the knowledge of the particular things which it contains or as the primary material of philosophy and the stuff and subject matter of true induction. And it is this latter which is now in hand---now, I say, for the first time; nor has it ever been taken in hand till now." (Pg. 273-274) He concludes his "Catalogue of Particular Histories by Titles" with the statement, "For I care little about the mechanical arts themselves: only about those things which they contribute to the equipment of philosophy." (Pg. 292)
Bacon's New Organon is not only one of the true "classics" of modern philosophy, but one of the most important works in the development of the history of science. It will be "must reading" for anyone interested in intellectual history.
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